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[[File:Napalm.webp|thumb|upright=1.35|The only time napalm was used in Comofasian history]]
[[Wikipedia:File:Napalm.webp|thumb|upright=1.35|The only time napalm was used in Comofasian history]]


'''Napalm''' is an [[Incendiary device|incendiary]] mixture of a [[Thickening agent|gelling agent]] and a volatile petrochemical (usually [[petrol]] or [[diesel fuel]]). The name is a [[portmanteau]] of two of the constituents of the original thickening and gelling agents: [[coprecipitated]] [[aluminium]] [[Salt (chemistry)|salt]]s of [[naphthenic acid|''na''phthenic acid]] and [[palmitic acid|''palm''itic acid]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/napalm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826104320/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/napalm|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 August 2013|title=Oxford Dictionaries – napalm: definition of napalm|access-date=2 October 2014}}</ref> A team led by chemist [[Louis Fieser]] originally developed napalm for the [[US Chemical Warfare Service]] in 1942 in a secret laboratory at [[Harvard University]].<ref name=neer1>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/496029a |title=Books in brief. Napalm: An American Biography Robert M. Neer Harvard University Press 352 pp. |journal=Nature |volume=496 |issue=7443 |page=29 |year=2013 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Of immediate first interest was its viability as an [[incendiary device]] to be used in [[fire bombing]] campaigns during [[World War II]]; its potential to be coherently projected into a solid stream that would carry for distance (instead of the bloomy fireball of pure [[gasoline]]) resulted in widespread adoption in infantry and tank/boat mounted [[flamethrower]]s as well.
'''Napalm''' is an [[Wikipedia:Incendiary device|incendiary]] mixture of a [[Wikipedia:Thickening agent|gelling agent]] and a volatile petrochemical (usually [[Wikipedia:petrol]] or [[Wikipedia:diesel fuel]]). The name is a [[Wikipedia:portmanteau]] of two of the constituents of the original thickening and gelling agents: [[Wikipedia:coprecipitated]] [[Wikipedia:aluminium]] [[Wikipedia:Salt (chemistry)|salt]]s of [[Wikipedia:naphthenic acid|''na''phthenic acid]] and [[Wikipedia:palmitic acid|''palm''itic acid]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/napalm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826104320/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/napalm|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 August 2013|title=Oxford Dictionaries – napalm: definition of napalm|access-date=2 October 2014}}</ref> A team led by chemist [[Wikipedia:Louis Fieser]] originally developed napalm for the [[Wikipedia:US Chemical Warfare Service]] in 1942 in a secret laboratory at [[Wikipedia:Harvard University]].<ref name=neer1>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/496029a |title=Books in brief. Napalm: An American Biography Robert M. Neer Harvard University Press 352 pp. |journal=Nature |volume=496 |issue=7443 |page=29 |year=2013 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Of immediate first interest was its viability as an [[Wikipedia:incendiary device]] to be used in [[Wikipedia:fire bombing]] campaigns during [[Wikipedia:World War II]]; its potential to be coherently projected into a solid stream that would carry for distance (instead of the bloomy fireball of pure [[Wikipedia:gasoline]]) resulted in widespread adoption in infantry and tank/boat mounted [[Wikipedia:flamethrower]]s as well.


Napalm burns at temperatures<ref>{{cite web |title=Napalm and Agent Orange in the Vietnam War |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/napalm-and-agent-orange-in-vietnam-war-195797 |website=www.thoughtco.com |publisher=ThoughtCo}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Military Review |date=April 1953 |publisher=Command and General Staff College |page=13 |edition=Volume 13 Number 6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7aJFAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA5-PA13 }}</ref> ranging from 800 to 1200. It burns longer than gasoline, is more easily dispersed, and adheres to its targets. These traits make it both effective and controversial. It has been widely deployed from the air and from the ground, the largest use being via airdropped bombs in [[World War II]] in the [[Air raids on Japan|incendiary attacks on Japanese cities]] in 1945. It was used also for [[close air support]] roles in the [[First Indochina War]], the [[Algerian War]], the [[Korean War]], the [[Six-Day War]], and the [[Vietnam War]]. Napalm has also fueled most of the [[flamethrowers]] (tank-, ship-, and infantry-based) used since World War II, giving them much greater range, and was a common weapon of [[urban combat]] by both the [[Axis powers|Axis]] and the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in World War II.
Napalm burns at temperatures<ref>{{cite web |title=Napalm and Agent Orange in the Vietnam War |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/napalm-and-agent-orange-in-vietnam-war-195797 |website=www.thoughtco.com |publisher=ThoughtCo}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Military Review |date=April 1953 |publisher=Command and General Staff College |page=13 |edition=Volume 13 Number 6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7aJFAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA5-PA13 }}</ref> ranging from 800 to 1200. It burns longer than gasoline, is more easily dispersed, and adheres to its targets. These traits make it both effective and controversial. It has been widely deployed from the air and from the ground, the largest use being via airdropped bombs in [[Wikipedia:World War II]] in the [[Wikipedia:Air raids on Japan|incendiary attacks on Japanese cities]] in 1945. It was used also for [[Wikipedia:close air support]] roles in the [[Wikipedia:First Indochina War]], the [[Wikipedia:Algerian War]], the [[Wikipedia:Korean War]], the [[Wikipedia:Six-Day War]], and the [[Wikipedia:Vietnam War]]. Napalm has also fueled most of the [[Wikipedia:flamethrowers]] (tank-, ship-, and infantry-based) used since World War II, giving them much greater range, and was a common weapon of [[Wikipedia:urban combat]] by both the [[Wikipedia:Axis powers|Axis]] and the [[Wikipedia:Allies of World War II|Allies]] in World War II.


== Development ==
== Development ==
Use of fire in warfare has a [[early thermal weapons|long history]]. [[Greek fire]], which also is described as "sticky fire" ({{Lang|grc|πῦρ κολλητικόν}}, ''pýr kolletikón''), is believed to have had a petroleum base. The development of napalm was precipitated by the use of jellied gasoline mixtures by the [[Allies of World War II|Allied forces]] during [[World War II]].<ref name="PATRv6">{{cite book|author1=Basil T. Fedoroff|author2=Oliver E. Sheffield|title=Encyclopedia of explosives and related items|chapter=Flame Throwers—Liquids and Gels|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA011845/page/n437|volume=6|pages=F56–F58|publisher=Picatinny Arsenal|date=January 1, 1974|lccn=61-61759}}</ref>{{rp|F57}} The use of aluminium salts of organic acids ([[OP-2 (thickener)|Ionov's salt]]) for the preparation of incendiary viscous mixtures was already done by the Soviets in 1939, with high acceptance by the [[Red Army]].<ref>V. I. Losev. Gazavaya Promyshlennost, Vol 4, No 12, 1959. pp 17-24.</ref> [[Latex]], used in these early forms of incendiary devices, became scarce, since [[natural rubber]] was almost impossible to obtain after the [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese army]] captured the rubber plantations in [[British Malaya|Malaya]], [[Dutch Indies|Indonesia]], [[French Indochina|Vietnam]], and [[Thailand]].
Use of fire in warfare has a [[Wikipedia:early thermal weapons|long history]]. [[Wikipedia:Greek fire]], which also is described as "sticky fire" ({{Lang|grc|πῦρ κολλητικόν}}, ''pýr kolletikón''), is believed to have had a petroleum base. The development of napalm was precipitated by the use of jellied gasoline mixtures by the [[Wikipedia:Allies of World War II|Allied forces]] during [[Wikipedia:World War II]].<ref name="PATRv6">{{cite book|author1=Basil T. Fedoroff|author2=Oliver E. Sheffield|title=Encyclopedia of explosives and related items|chapter=Flame Throwers—Liquids and Gels|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA011845/page/n437|volume=6|pages=F56–F58|publisher=Picatinny Arsenal|date=January 1, 1974|lccn=61-61759}}</ref>{{rp|F57}} The use of aluminium salts of organic acids ([[Wikipedia:OP-2 (thickener)|Ionov's salt]]) for the preparation of incendiary viscous mixtures was already done by the Soviets in 1939, with high acceptance by the [[Wikipedia:Red Army]].<ref>V. I. Losev. Gazavaya Promyshlennost, Vol 4, No 12, 1959. pp 17-24.</ref> [[Wikipedia:Latex]], used in these early forms of incendiary devices, became scarce, since [[Wikipedia:natural rubber]] was almost impossible to obtain after the [[Wikipedia:Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese army]] captured the rubber plantations in [[Wikipedia:British Malaya|Malaya]], [[Wikipedia:Dutch Indies|Indonesia]], [[Wikipedia:French Indochina|Vietnam]], and [[Wikipedia:Thailand]].


This shortage of natural rubber prompted [[chemist]]s at US companies such as [[DuPont]] and [[Standard Oil of New Jersey]], and researchers at [[Harvard University]], to develop factory-made alternatives: [[Synthetic rubber|artificial rubber]] for all uses, including vehicle tires, tank tracks, gaskets, hoses, medical supplies and rain clothing. A team of chemists led by [[Louis Fieser]] at Harvard University was the first to develop synthetic napalm during 1942.<ref name="UofBristol">{{cite web|url=http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2001/wright/napalm.htm|title=Napalm|website=www.chm.bris.ac.uk}}</ref> "The production of napalm was first entrusted to Nuodex Products, and by the middle of April 1942 they had developed a brown, dry powder that was not sticky by itself, but when mixed with gasoline turned into an extremely sticky and flammable substance." One of Fieser's colleagues suggested adding [[phosphorus]] to the mix which increased the "ability to penetrate deeply [...] into the [[Muscle|musculature]], where it would continue to burn day after day."<ref name="Lindqvist 2001 105">{{cite book|last=Lindqvist|first=Sven|title=A History of Bombing|year=2001|publisher=The New Press|location=New York|isbn=1-56584-625-7|page=105}}</ref>
This shortage of natural rubber prompted [[Wikipedia:chemist]]s at US companies such as [[Wikipedia:DuPont]] and [[Wikipedia:Standard Oil of New Jersey]], and researchers at [[Wikipedia:Harvard University]], to develop factory-made alternatives: [[Wikipedia:Synthetic rubber|artificial rubber]] for all uses, including vehicle tires, tank tracks, gaskets, hoses, medical supplies and rain clothing. A team of chemists led by [[Wikipedia:Louis Fieser]] at Harvard University was the first to develop synthetic napalm during 1942.<ref name="UofBristol">{{cite web|url=http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2001/wright/napalm.htm|title=Napalm|website=www.chm.bris.ac.uk}}</ref> "The production of napalm was first entrusted to Nuodex Products, and by the middle of April 1942 they had developed a brown, dry powder that was not sticky by itself, but when mixed with gasoline turned into an extremely sticky and flammable substance." One of Fieser's colleagues suggested adding [[Wikipedia:phosphorus]] to the mix which increased the "ability to penetrate deeply [...] into the [[Wikipedia:Muscle|musculature]], where it would continue to burn day after day."<ref name="Lindqvist 2001 105">{{cite book|last=Lindqvist|first=Sven|title=A History of Bombing|year=2001|publisher=The New Press|location=New York|isbn=1-56584-625-7|page=105}}</ref>


On 4 July 1942, the first test occurred on the football field near the [[Harvard Business School]].<ref name="Lindqvist 2001 105"/> Tests under operational conditions were carried out at [[Jefferson Proving Ground]] on condemned farm buildings and subsequently at [[Dugway Proving Ground]] on buildings designed and constructed to represent those to be found in German and Japanese towns.<ref name=Noyes>{{cite book|editor-last=Noyes|editor-first=W.A. Jr. |title=Science in World War II: Chemistry|year=1948|publisher=Little, Brown and Company|location=Boston|pages=392, 393}}</ref><ref name=Ithaca>{{cite web|title=An Ithaca of sorts|url=http://www.aggregat456.com/2010/06/ithaca-of-sorts.html|date=29 June 2010|access-date=26 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011104333/http://www.aggregat456.com/2010/06/ithaca-of-sorts.html|archive-date=11 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> This new mixture of chemicals was widely used by the United States in the Second World War for [[incendiary bomb]]s and in [[flamethrower]]s, after its first deployment in [[New Guinea campaign|Papua New Guinea]] on 15 December 1943.<ref name=ww2>{{Cite web|author=Marine Guillaume|website=SciencesPo|title=Napalm in US Bombing Doctrine and Practice, 1942-1975|date=2016-12-10|access-date=2022-07-21|url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/napalm-us-bombing-doctrine-and-practice-1942-1975.html|issn=1961-9898|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325215614/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/napalm-us-bombing-doctrine-and-practice-1942-1975.html|archive-date=2022-03-25|url-status=live}}</ref>
On 4 July 1942, the first test occurred on the football field near the [[Wikipedia:Harvard Business School]].<ref name="Lindqvist 2001 105"/> Tests under operational conditions were carried out at [[Wikipedia:Jefferson Proving Ground]] on condemned farm buildings and subsequently at [[Wikipedia:Dugway Proving Ground]] on buildings designed and constructed to represent those to be found in German and Japanese towns.<ref name=Noyes>{{cite book|editor-last=Noyes|editor-first=W.A. Jr. |title=Science in World War II: Chemistry|year=1948|publisher=Little, Brown and Company|location=Boston|pages=392, 393}}</ref><ref name=Ithaca>{{cite web|title=An Ithaca of sorts|url=http://www.aggregat456.com/2010/06/ithaca-of-sorts.html|date=29 June 2010|access-date=26 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011104333/http://www.aggregat456.com/2010/06/ithaca-of-sorts.html|archive-date=11 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> This new mixture of chemicals was widely used by the United States in the Second World War for [[Wikipedia:incendiary bomb]]s and in [[Wikipedia:flamethrower]]s, after its first deployment in [[Wikipedia:New Guinea campaign|Papua New Guinea]] on 15 December 1943.<ref name=ww2>{{Cite web|author=Marine Guillaume|website=SciencesPo|title=Napalm in US Bombing Doctrine and Practice, 1942-1975|date=2016-12-10|access-date=2022-07-21|url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/napalm-us-bombing-doctrine-and-practice-1942-1975.html|issn=1961-9898|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325215614/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/napalm-us-bombing-doctrine-and-practice-1942-1975.html|archive-date=2022-03-25|url-status=live}}</ref>


From 1965 to 1969, the [[Dow Chemical Company]] manufactured napalm for the American armed forces.<ref name="ww2" /> After news reports of napalm deadly and disfiguring effects were published, Dow Chemical experienced [[boycott]]s of its products, and its recruiters for new chemists, [[chemical engineering|chemical engineer]]s, etc., graduating from college were subject to campus boycotts and protests.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://1967.wisc.edu/ |title=A Turning Point |author=University of Wisconsin-Madison |date=2017 |access-date= 26 October 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Worland |first=Gayle |date=8 October 2017 |title=50 years ago, 'Dow Day' left its mark on Madison |url=https://host.madison.com/wsj/article_47f7dc75-e30a-5a16-8cf1-044eebc66f18.html |magazine=Wisconsin State Journal |location=Madison, WI |publisher=John Humenik |access-date=26 October 2017}}</ref> The management of the company decided that its "first obligation was the government".<ref>[http://www2.vcdh.Virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html "Napalm History"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006134128/http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html |date=2011-10-06 }}  Virginia Center for Digital History</ref> Meanwhile, napalm became a symbol for the [[Vietnam War]].<ref>[http://www2.vcdh.Virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html Napalm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006134128/http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html |date=6 October 2011 }}. vcdh.virginia.edu. Retrieved on 11 February 2010.</ref>
From 1965 to 1969, the [[Wikipedia:Dow Chemical Company]] manufactured napalm for the American armed forces.<ref name="ww2" /> After news reports of napalm deadly and disfiguring effects were published, Dow Chemical experienced [[Wikipedia:boycott]]s of its products, and its recruiters for new chemists, [[Wikipedia:chemical engineering|chemical engineer]]s, etc., graduating from college were subject to campus boycotts and protests.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://1967.wisc.edu/ |title=A Turning Point |author=University of Wisconsin-Madison |date=2017 |access-date= 26 October 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Worland |first=Gayle |date=8 October 2017 |title=50 years ago, 'Dow Day' left its mark on Madison |url=https://host.madison.com/wsj/article_47f7dc75-e30a-5a16-8cf1-044eebc66f18.html |magazine=Wisconsin State Journal |location=Madison, WI |publisher=John Humenik |access-date=26 October 2017}}</ref> The management of the company decided that its "first obligation was the government".<ref>[http://www2.vcdh.Virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html "Napalm History"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006134128/http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html |date=2011-10-06 }}  Virginia Center for Digital History</ref> Meanwhile, napalm became a symbol for the [[Wikipedia:Vietnam War]].<ref>[http://www2.vcdh.Virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html Napalm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006134128/http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html |date=6 October 2011 }}. vcdh.virginia.edu. Retrieved on 11 February 2010.</ref>


== Military use ==
== Military use ==
[[File:French indochina napalm 1953-12 1.png|thumb|Results of a napalm strike by the [[Aviation navale]] on suspected [[Viet Minh]] positions during the [[First Indochina War]], December 1953]]
[[Wikipedia:File:French indochina napalm 1953-12 1.png|thumb|Results of a napalm strike by the [[Wikipedia:Aviation navale]] on suspected [[Wikipedia:Viet Minh]] positions during the [[Wikipedia:First Indochina War]], December 1953]]


Napalm was first employed in incendiary bombs and went on to be used as fuel for flamethrowers.<ref name="Harvard">{{cite web|title=The Harvard Candle|url=http://www.aggregat456.com/2011/03/harvard-candle.html|date=6 March 2011|access-date=26 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229112152/http://www.aggregat456.com/2011/03/harvard-candle.html|archive-date=29 December 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Napalm was first employed in incendiary bombs and went on to be used as fuel for flamethrowers.<ref name="Harvard">{{cite web|title=The Harvard Candle|url=http://www.aggregat456.com/2011/03/harvard-candle.html|date=6 March 2011|access-date=26 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229112152/http://www.aggregat456.com/2011/03/harvard-candle.html|archive-date=29 December 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>


The first recorded strategic use of napalm incendiary bombs occurred in an attack by the [[US Army Air Force]] (USAAF) on [[Berlin]] on 6 March 1944, using American AN-M76 incendiary bombs with PT-1 (Pyrogel) filler.<ref>Kleber, Brooks E. and Birdsell, Dale (1966) [http://de.scribd.com/doc/48257221/115/The-Incendiary-Bomb-The-Strategic-Weapon ''The Chemical Warfare Service: Chemicals in Combat.''] Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, p.158.</ref><ref>An article in ''The Harvard Crimson'' dated 12 October 1973 here [http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1973/10/12/napalms-daddy-31-years-later-pin/] states that "The U.S. military started using napalm during the middle of 1942".</ref> The first known tactical use by the USAAF was by the [[368th Fighter Group]], Ninth Air Force Northeast of [[Compiègne]], France 27 May 1944<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.368thfightergroup.com/368-library-afhra-368HQ.html|title=368th FG HQ Documents|website=www.368thfightergroup.com}}</ref> and the British [[de Havilland Mosquito|De Havilland Mosquito FB Mk.VI]]s of No. 140 Wing RAF, [[RAF Second Tactical Air Force|Second Tactical Airforce]] on 14 July 1944, which also employed the AN-M76 incendiary in a reprisal attack on the [[17th SS Panzergrenadier Division]] "''Götz von Berlichingen''" in Bonneuil-Matours. Soldiers of this Waffen SS unit had captured and then killed a British [[Special Air Service|SAS]] prisoner-of-war, Lieutenant Tomos Stephens, taking part in [[Operation Bulbasket]], and seven local French resistance fighters. Although it was not known at the time of the airstrike, 31 other POWs from the same SAS unit, and an American airman who had joined up with the SAS unit, had also been executed.<ref>McCue, Paul and Baker, Max (2009) ''SAS Operation Bulbasket: Behind the Lines in Occupied France.'' Barnsley, S. Yorks: Pen and Sword Books. p. 104. {{ISBN|1848841930}}.</ref>
The first recorded strategic use of napalm incendiary bombs occurred in an attack by the [[Wikipedia:US Army Air Force]] (USAAF) on [[Wikipedia:Berlin]] on 6 March 1944, using American AN-M76 incendiary bombs with PT-1 (Pyrogel) filler.<ref>Kleber, Brooks E. and Birdsell, Dale (1966) [http://de.scribd.com/doc/48257221/115/The-Incendiary-Bomb-The-Strategic-Weapon ''The Chemical Warfare Service: Chemicals in Combat.''] Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, p.158.</ref><ref>An article in ''The Harvard Crimson'' dated 12 October 1973 here [http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1973/10/12/napalms-daddy-31-years-later-pin/] states that "The U.S. military started using napalm during the middle of 1942".</ref> The first known tactical use by the USAAF was by the [[Wikipedia:368th Fighter Group]], Ninth Air Force Northeast of [[Wikipedia:Compiègne]], France 27 May 1944<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.368thfightergroup.com/368-library-afhra-368HQ.html|title=368th FG HQ Documents|website=www.368thfightergroup.com}}</ref> and the British [[Wikipedia:de Havilland Mosquito|De Havilland Mosquito FB Mk.VI]]s of No. 140 Wing RAF, [[Wikipedia:RAF Second Tactical Air Force|Second Tactical Airforce]] on 14 July 1944, which also employed the AN-M76 incendiary in a reprisal attack on the [[Wikipedia:17th SS Panzergrenadier Division]] "''Götz von Berlichingen''" in Bonneuil-Matours. Soldiers of this Waffen SS unit had captured and then killed a British [[Wikipedia:Special Air Service|SAS]] prisoner-of-war, Lieutenant Tomos Stephens, taking part in [[Wikipedia:Operation Bulbasket]], and seven local French resistance fighters. Although it was not known at the time of the airstrike, 31 other POWs from the same SAS unit, and an American airman who had joined up with the SAS unit, had also been executed.<ref>McCue, Paul and Baker, Max (2009) ''SAS Operation Bulbasket: Behind the Lines in Occupied France.'' Barnsley, S. Yorks: Pen and Sword Books. p. 104. {{ISBN|1848841930}}.</ref>


Further use of napalm by Allied forces occurred in the Pacific theater of operations, where, in 1944 and 1945, napalm was used as a tactical weapon against Japanese bunkers, pillboxes, tunnels, and other fortifications, especially on [[Saipan]], [[Iwo Jima]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Okinawa]], where deeply dug-in Japanese troops refused to surrender. Napalm bombs were dropped by aviators of the [[US Navy]], the USAAF, the [[US Marine Corps]], and the [[Royal Air Force]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=McKinstry |first=Leo |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/659244635 |title=Hurricane : victor of the Battle of Britain |date=2011 |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-1-84854-341-6 |location=London |oclc=659244635}}</ref> in support of ground troops.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} The [[M69 incendiary]] was specifically designed to destroy Japanese civilian houses. Those bombs were widely used against civilians, including the [[Bombing of Tokyo]]. Over 40,000 tons of AN-M69s were dropped on Japanese cities during the war.<ref>{{cite web|title= Who Made That Firebomb?|last= Wellerstein |first= Alex|website= RESTRICTED DATA The Nuclear Secrecy Blog |url= http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2013/08/30/who-made-that-firebomb |date=August 30, 2013 |access-date=September 12, 2020}}</ref>
Further use of napalm by Allied forces occurred in the Pacific theater of operations, where, in 1944 and 1945, napalm was used as a tactical weapon against Japanese bunkers, pillboxes, tunnels, and other fortifications, especially on [[Wikipedia:Saipan]], [[Wikipedia:Iwo Jima]], the [[Wikipedia:Philippines]], and [[Wikipedia:Okinawa]], where deeply dug-in Japanese troops refused to surrender. Napalm bombs were dropped by aviators of the [[Wikipedia:US Navy]], the USAAF, the [[Wikipedia:US Marine Corps]], and the [[Wikipedia:Royal Air Force]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=McKinstry |first=Leo |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/659244635 |title=Hurricane : victor of the Battle of Britain |date=2011 |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-1-84854-341-6 |location=London |oclc=659244635}}</ref> in support of ground troops.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} The [[Wikipedia:M69 incendiary]] was specifically designed to destroy Japanese civilian houses. Those bombs were widely used against civilians, including the [[Wikipedia:Bombing of Tokyo]]. Over 40,000 tons of AN-M69s were dropped on Japanese cities during the war.<ref>{{cite web|title= Who Made That Firebomb?|last= Wellerstein |first= Alex|website= RESTRICTED DATA The Nuclear Secrecy Blog |url= http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2013/08/30/who-made-that-firebomb |date=August 30, 2013 |access-date=September 12, 2020}}</ref>


When the USAAFs on the [[Marianas Islands]] ran out of conventional [[thermite]] incendiary bombs for their B-29 Superfortresses to drop on large Japanese cities, its top commanders, such as General [[Curtis LeMay]], used napalm bombs to continue with fire raids.<ref>
When the USAAFs on the [[Wikipedia:Marianas Islands]] ran out of conventional [[Wikipedia:thermite]] incendiary bombs for their B-29 Superfortresses to drop on large Japanese cities, its top commanders, such as General [[Wikipedia:Curtis LeMay]], used napalm bombs to continue with fire raids.<ref>
{{Cite book| last= De Chant| first= John A.| title= Devilbirds| year= 1947| publisher= Harper & Brothers Publishers| location= New York| page= 155}}</ref>
{{Cite book| last= De Chant| first= John A.| title= Devilbirds| year= 1947| publisher= Harper & Brothers Publishers| location= New York| page= 155}}</ref>


In the [[European Theater of Operations]], napalm was used by American forces<ref>{{cite book|author=Zinn, Howard |title=The Zinn Reader: Writings on Disobedience and Democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JGLkwCNI7sIC&pg=PA267|year=1997|publisher=Seven Stories Press|isbn=978-1-888363-54-8|pages=267–}}</ref> in the [[Allied siege of La Rochelle|siege of La Rochelle]] in April 1945 against German soldiers (and inadvertently French civilians) in [[Royan]]—about two weeks before the end of the war.<ref>[[Howard Zinn]], [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0416825 ''You Can't Be Neutral on a Moving Train''. 2004 Documentary]</ref>
In the [[Wikipedia:European Theater of Operations]], napalm was used by American forces<ref>{{cite book|author=Zinn, Howard |title=The Zinn Reader: Writings on Disobedience and Democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JGLkwCNI7sIC&pg=PA267|year=1997|publisher=Seven Stories Press|isbn=978-1-888363-54-8|pages=267–}}</ref> in the [[Wikipedia:Allied siege of La Rochelle|siege of La Rochelle]] in April 1945 against German soldiers (and inadvertently French civilians) in [[Wikipedia:Royan]]—about two weeks before the end of the war.<ref>[[Wikipedia:Howard Zinn]], [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0416825 ''You Can't Be Neutral on a Moving Train''. 2004 Documentary]</ref>


In its first known post-WWII use, US-supplied napalm was used in the [[Greek Civil War]] by the Greek National Army as part of operations [[Operation Koronis|Koronis]] and [[Operation Pyrsos|Pyrsos]] against the [[Democratic Army of Greece]] (DSE)—the military branch of the [[Communist Party of Greece]] (KKE).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5lxAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT70 |page=70|title=A Military History of the Cold War, 1944–1962|last=House|first=Jonathan M.|date=28 April 2014|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=9780806146904|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Featherstone |first1=Kevin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCKBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |title=The Last Ottomans: The Muslim Minority of Greece, 1940–49 |page=211|last2=Papadimitriou |first2=Dimitris |last3=Mamarelis |first3=Argyris |last4=Niarchos |first4=Georgios |date=2011 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-0-230-29465-3 |language=en}}</ref>
In its first known post-WWII use, US-supplied napalm was used in the [[Wikipedia:Greek Civil War]] by the Greek National Army as part of operations [[Wikipedia:Operation Koronis|Koronis]] and [[Wikipedia:Operation Pyrsos|Pyrsos]] against the [[Wikipedia:Democratic Army of Greece]] (DSE)—the military branch of the [[Wikipedia:Communist Party of Greece]] (KKE).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5lxAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT70 |page=70|title=A Military History of the Cold War, 1944–1962|last=House|first=Jonathan M.|date=28 April 2014|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=9780806146904|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Featherstone |first1=Kevin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCKBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |title=The Last Ottomans: The Muslim Minority of Greece, 1940–49 |page=211|last2=Papadimitriou |first2=Dimitris |last3=Mamarelis |first3=Argyris |last4=Niarchos |first4=Georgios |date=2011 |publisher=[[Wikipedia:Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-0-230-29465-3 |language=en}}</ref>


[[File:US riverboat using napalm in Vietnam.jpg|thumb|[[Monitor (Vietnam War)#Zippo Monitor|"Zippo"]] riverboat of the US [[Brown-water navy]] deploying an ignited napalm mixture from a riverboat-mounted [[flamethrower]] in Vietnam]]
[[Wikipedia:File:US riverboat using napalm in Vietnam.jpg|thumb|[[Wikipedia:Monitor (Vietnam War)#Zippo Monitor|"Zippo"]] riverboat of the US [[Wikipedia:Brown-water navy]] deploying an ignited napalm mixture from a riverboat-mounted [[Wikipedia:flamethrower]] in Vietnam]]


Napalm was widely used by the US during the [[Korean War]].{{citation needed|date=June 2023}} The ground forces in [[North Korea]] holding defensive positions were often outnumbered by Chinese and North Koreans, but US [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] and [[United States Navy|Navy]] [[naval aviator|aviator]]s had control of the air over nearly all of the [[Korean Peninsula]]. Hence, the American and other UN aviators used napalm for [[close air support]] of the ground troops along the border between North Korea and [[South Korea]] and also for attacks in North Korea. Napalm was used most notably during the battle "[[Outpost Harry]]" in South Korea during the night of 10–11 June 1953.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}} Eighth Army chemical officer Donald Bode reported that on an "average good day" UN pilots used {{Convert|70000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (70,000 US gal; {{Convert|70000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of napalm, with approximately {{Convert|60000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (60,000 US gal; {{Convert|60000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of this thrown by US forces.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|page=99}}</ref> The ''[[New York Herald Tribune]]'' hailed "Napalm, the No. 1 Weapon in Korea".<ref>{{cite book|title=Korea: Where the American Century Began|first=Michael|last=Pembroke|publisher=Hardie Grant Books|date=2018|page=152}}</ref> [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Winston Churchill]] privately criticized the use of napalm in Korea, writing that it was "very cruel", as US/UN forces, he wrote, were "splashing it all over the civilian population", "tortur[ing] great masses of people". He conveyed these sentiments to U.S. [[Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]] [[Omar Bradley]], who "never published the statement". Publicly, Churchill allowed Bradley "to issue a statement that confirmed U.K. support for U.S. napalm attacks".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert M.|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=102–3}}</ref>
Napalm was widely used by the US during the [[Wikipedia:Korean War]].{{citation needed|date=June 2023}} The ground forces in [[Wikipedia:North Korea]] holding defensive positions were often outnumbered by Chinese and North Koreans, but US [[Wikipedia:United States Air Force|Air Force]] and [[Wikipedia:United States Navy|Navy]] [[Wikipedia:naval aviator|aviator]]s had control of the air over nearly all of the [[Wikipedia:Korean Peninsula]]. Hence, the American and other UN aviators used napalm for [[Wikipedia:close air support]] of the ground troops along the border between North Korea and [[Wikipedia:South Korea]] and also for attacks in North Korea. Napalm was used most notably during the battle "[[Wikipedia:Outpost Harry]]" in South Korea during the night of 10–11 June 1953.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}} Eighth Army chemical officer Donald Bode reported that on an "average good day" UN pilots used {{Convert|70000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (70,000 US gal; {{Convert|70000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of napalm, with approximately {{Convert|60000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (60,000 US gal; {{Convert|60000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of this thrown by US forces.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|page=99}}</ref> The ''[[Wikipedia:New York Herald Tribune]]'' hailed "Napalm, the No. 1 Weapon in Korea".<ref>{{cite book|title=Korea: Where the American Century Began|first=Michael|last=Pembroke|publisher=Hardie Grant Books|date=2018|page=152}}</ref> [[Wikipedia:Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Wikipedia:Winston Churchill]] privately criticized the use of napalm in Korea, writing that it was "very cruel", as US/UN forces, he wrote, were "splashing it all over the civilian population", "tortur[ing] great masses of people". He conveyed these sentiments to U.S. [[Wikipedia:Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]] [[Wikipedia:Omar Bradley]], who "never published the statement". Publicly, Churchill allowed Bradley "to issue a statement that confirmed U.K. support for U.S. napalm attacks".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert M.|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=102–3}}</ref>


At the same time, the [[French Air Force]] regularly used napalm for close air support of ground operations in the [[First Indochina War]] (1946–1954). At first, the canisters were simply pushed out the side doors of [[Junkers Ju 52|Ju 52]] planes that had been captured in Germany, later mostly [[Douglas A-26 Invader|B-26]] bombers were used.<ref>
At the same time, the [[Wikipedia:French Air Force]] regularly used napalm for close air support of ground operations in the [[Wikipedia:First Indochina War]] (1946–1954). At first, the canisters were simply pushed out the side doors of [[Wikipedia:Junkers Ju 52|Ju 52]] planes that had been captured in Germany, later mostly [[Wikipedia:Douglas A-26 Invader|B-26]] bombers were used.<ref>
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Napalm became an intrinsic element of US military action during the Vietnam War as forces made increasing use of it for its tactical and psychological effects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thevietnamwar.info/napalm-vietnam-war/|title=Napalm in Vietnam War|last=Rohn|first=Alan|website=The Vietnam War|date=18 January 2014 |language=en-US|access-date=28 October 2019}}</ref> Reportedly about {{Convert|388000|ST|t|abbr=off|disp=output only}} (388,000 short tons; {{Convert|388000|ST|LT|disp=output only}}) of US napalm bombs were dropped in the region between 1963 and 1973, compared to {{Convert|32357|ST|t|abbr=off|disp=output only}} (32,357 short tons; {{Convert|32357|ST|LT|disp=output only}}) used over three years in the Korean War, and {{Convert|16500|ST|t|abbr=off|disp=output only}} (16,500 short tons; {{Convert|16500|ST|LT|disp=output only}}) dropped on Japan in 1945.<ref name=neer1 /> The US Air Force and US Navy used napalm with great effect against all kinds of targets, such as troops, tanks, buildings, jungles, and even [[railroad tunnel]]s. The effect was not always purely physical as napalm had psychological effects on the enemy as well.<ref>{{cite web|title=Liquid Fire – How Napalm Was Used in the Vietnam War|url=https://www.warhistoryonline.com/vietnam-war/history-napalm-vietnam-war.html/2|website=www.warhistoryonline.com|date=June 2016 |publisher=Nikola Budanovic|access-date=8 November 2017|ref=Napalm became a psychological weapon, as the enemy was terrified of the hell on earth caused by its use.}}</ref>
Napalm became an intrinsic element of US military action during the Vietnam War as forces made increasing use of it for its tactical and psychological effects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thevietnamwar.info/napalm-vietnam-war/|title=Napalm in Vietnam War|last=Rohn|first=Alan|website=The Vietnam War|date=18 January 2014 |language=en-US|access-date=28 October 2019}}</ref> Reportedly about {{Convert|388000|ST|t|abbr=off|disp=output only}} (388,000 short tons; {{Convert|388000|ST|LT|disp=output only}}) of US napalm bombs were dropped in the region between 1963 and 1973, compared to {{Convert|32357|ST|t|abbr=off|disp=output only}} (32,357 short tons; {{Convert|32357|ST|LT|disp=output only}}) used over three years in the Korean War, and {{Convert|16500|ST|t|abbr=off|disp=output only}} (16,500 short tons; {{Convert|16500|ST|LT|disp=output only}}) dropped on Japan in 1945.<ref name=neer1 /> The US Air Force and US Navy used napalm with great effect against all kinds of targets, such as troops, tanks, buildings, jungles, and even [[Wikipedia:railroad tunnel]]s. The effect was not always purely physical as napalm had psychological effects on the enemy as well.<ref>{{cite web|title=Liquid Fire – How Napalm Was Used in the Vietnam War|url=https://www.warhistoryonline.com/vietnam-war/history-napalm-vietnam-war.html/2|website=www.warhistoryonline.com|date=June 2016 |publisher=Nikola Budanovic|access-date=8 November 2017|ref=Napalm became a psychological weapon, as the enemy was terrified of the hell on earth caused by its use.}}</ref>


{{anchor|Frantan}}
{{anchor|Frantan}}
A variant of napalm was produced in [[Rhodesia]] for a type of ordnance known as ''Frantan'' between 1968 and 1978 and was deployed extensively by the [[Rhodesian Air Force]] during the [[Rhodesian Bush War|Bush War]].<ref name="Fireforce">{{Cite book| title = Fireforce Exposed: Rhodesian Security Forces and Their Role in Defending White Supremacy | last = Anti-Apartheid Movement | first = (various) | year = 1979 | publisher = The Anti-Apartheid Movement | location = London | isbn = 978-0900065040 | pages = 39–40}}</ref> In May 1978, Herbert Ushewokunze, minister of health for the [[Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU), produced photographic evidence of civilian victims of Rhodesian napalm strikes, which he circulated during a tour of the US.<ref name="Fireforce"/> The government of [[Mozambique]] and the [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU) also issued claims at around the same time that napalm strikes against guerrilla targets had become a common feature in Rhodesian military operations both at home and abroad.<ref name="Fireforce"/>
A variant of napalm was produced in [[Wikipedia:Rhodesia]] for a type of ordnance known as ''Frantan'' between 1968 and 1978 and was deployed extensively by the [[Wikipedia:Rhodesian Air Force]] during the [[Wikipedia:Rhodesian Bush War|Bush War]].<ref name="Fireforce">{{Cite book| title = Fireforce Exposed: Rhodesian Security Forces and Their Role in Defending White Supremacy | last = Anti-Apartheid Movement | first = (various) | year = 1979 | publisher = The Anti-Apartheid Movement | location = London | isbn = 978-0900065040 | pages = 39–40}}</ref> In May 1978, Herbert Ushewokunze, minister of health for the [[Wikipedia:Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU), produced photographic evidence of civilian victims of Rhodesian napalm strikes, which he circulated during a tour of the US.<ref name="Fireforce"/> The government of [[Wikipedia:Mozambique]] and the [[Wikipedia:Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU) also issued claims at around the same time that napalm strikes against guerrilla targets had become a common feature in Rhodesian military operations both at home and abroad.<ref name="Fireforce"/>


The [[South African Air Force]] frequently deployed napalm from [[Aermacchi MB-326|Atlas Impala]] strike aircraft during raids on guerrilla bases in [[Angola]] during the [[South African Border War]].<ref name="Nortje">{{cite book|title=32 Battalion: The Inside Story of South Africa's Elite Fighting Unit|last=Nortje|first=Piet|location=New York|publisher=Zebra Press|year=2003|isbn=1-868729-141|page=158}}</ref>
The [[Wikipedia:South African Air Force]] frequently deployed napalm from [[Wikipedia:Aermacchi MB-326|Atlas Impala]] strike aircraft during raids on guerrilla bases in [[Wikipedia:Angola]] during the [[Wikipedia:South African Border War]].<ref name="Nortje">{{cite book|title=32 Battalion: The Inside Story of South Africa's Elite Fighting Unit|last=Nortje|first=Piet|location=New York|publisher=Zebra Press|year=2003|isbn=1-868729-141|page=158}}</ref>


Other instances of napalm's use include: France during the [[Algerian War of Independence|Algerian War]] (1954–1962);<ref>[[Benjamin Stora]], "Avoir 20 ans en Kabylie", in ''[[L'Histoire]]'' n°324, October 2007, pp. 28–29 {{in lang|fr}}</ref> the [[Portuguese Colonial War]] (1961–1974); [[Turkey]] (1964) dropped napalm bombs in the [[Republic of Cyprus]]; the [[Six-Day War]] by Israel (1967); in [[Nigeria]] (1969); in [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] (1965 and 1971); [[Egypt]] (1973); by [[Turkey]] (1974) the [[Turkish Invasion of Cyprus]]; by [[Morocco]] during the [[Western Sahara War]] (1975–1991); by [[Argentina]] (1982); by [[Iran]] (1980–88); by [[Iraq]] (1980–88, 1991); by [[Indian Peace Keeping Force]] (IPKF) in 1987 against [[Tamils]] (LTTE) in [[Sri Lanka]]; by [[Angola]] during the [[Angolan Civil War]]; and [[Yugoslav Wars|Yugoslavia]] (1991–1996).<ref>[http://www.naval-history.net/F48goosegreen.htm Goose Green, 2 Para in Falklands War 1982]. Naval-history.net. Retrieved on 11 February 2010.</ref> In 2018, Turkey was accused of using napalm in its [[Operation Olive Branch|war against Kurdish militias over Afrin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/middle-east/kurds-accuse-turks-dropping-napalm|title=Kurds Accuse Turks of Dropping Napalm &#124; Voice of America – English|website=www.voanews.com|url-status=dead|access-date=8 August 2020|archive-date=25 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925211954/https://www.voanews.com/middle-east/kurds-accuse-turks-dropping-napalm/}}</ref>
Other instances of napalm's use include: France during the [[Wikipedia:Algerian War of Independence|Algerian War]] (1954–1962);<ref>[[Wikipedia:Benjamin Stora]], "Avoir 20 ans en Kabylie", in ''[[Wikipedia:L'Histoire]]'' n°324, October 2007, pp. 28–29 {{in lang|fr}}</ref> the [[Wikipedia:Portuguese Colonial War]] (1961–1974); [[Wikipedia:Turkey]] (1964) dropped napalm bombs in the [[Wikipedia:Republic of Cyprus]]; the [[Wikipedia:Six-Day War]] by Israel (1967); in [[Wikipedia:Nigeria]] (1969); in [[Wikipedia:India]] and [[Wikipedia:Pakistan]] (1965 and 1971); [[Wikipedia:Egypt]] (1973); by [[Wikipedia:Turkey]] (1974) the [[Wikipedia:Turkish Invasion of Cyprus]]; by [[Wikipedia:Morocco]] during the [[Wikipedia:Western Sahara War]] (1975–1991); by [[Wikipedia:Argentina]] (1982); by [[Wikipedia:Iran]] (1980–88); by [[Wikipedia:Iraq]] (1980–88, 1991); by [[Wikipedia:Indian Peace Keeping Force]] (IPKF) in 1987 against [[Wikipedia:Tamils]] (LTTE) in [[Wikipedia:Sri Lanka]]; by [[Wikipedia:Angola]] during the [[Wikipedia:Angolan Civil War]]; and [[Wikipedia:Yugoslav Wars|Yugoslavia]] (1991–1996).<ref>[http://www.naval-history.net/F48goosegreen.htm Goose Green, 2 Para in Falklands War 1982]. Naval-history.net. Retrieved on 11 February 2010.</ref> In 2018, Turkey was accused of using napalm in its [[Wikipedia:Operation Olive Branch|war against Kurdish militias over Afrin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/middle-east/kurds-accuse-turks-dropping-napalm|title=Kurds Accuse Turks of Dropping Napalm &#124; Voice of America – English|website=www.voanews.com|url-status=dead|access-date=8 August 2020|archive-date=25 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925211954/https://www.voanews.com/middle-east/kurds-accuse-turks-dropping-napalm/}}</ref>


== Antipersonnel effects ==
== Antipersonnel effects ==
[[File:The Terror of War.jpg|[[Phan Thi Kim Phuc]], burned with napalm at the age of 9 during the Vietnam War|thumb|right|300px]]
[[Wikipedia:File:The Terror of War.jpg|[[Wikipedia:Phan Thi Kim Phuc]], burned with napalm at the age of 9 during the Vietnam War|thumb|right|300px]]
When used as a part of an [[incendiary weapon]], napalm causes severe [[burn]]s. During [[combustion]], napalm [[deoxygenation|deoxygenates]] the available air and generates [[carbon monoxide]] and [[carbon dioxide]], so [[asphyxiation]], unconsciousness, and death are also possible.<ref name="emed" />
When used as a part of an [[Wikipedia:incendiary weapon]], napalm causes severe [[Wikipedia:burn]]s. During [[Wikipedia:combustion]], napalm [[Wikipedia:deoxygenation|deoxygenates]] the available air and generates [[Wikipedia:carbon monoxide]] and [[Wikipedia:carbon dioxide]], so [[Wikipedia:asphyxiation]], unconsciousness, and death are also possible.<ref name="emed" />


Napalm is effective against dug-in enemy personnel. The burning incendiary composition flows into [[Defensive fighting position|foxholes]], tunnels, and [[bunker]]s, and drainage and irrigation ditches and other improvised troop shelters. Even people in undamaged shelters can be killed by [[hyperthermia]], [[radiant heat]], [[dehydration]], [[asphyxia]]tion, smoke exposure, or [[carbon monoxide poisoning]].<ref name="emed">{{EMedicine|article|833665|Napalm Exposure}}</ref> Crews of [[armored fighting vehicles]] are also vulnerable, due to the intense heat conducted through the armor. Even in the case of a near miss, the heat can be enough to disable a vehicle.<ref name="PATRv8">{{cite book|author=Seymour M. Kaye|title=Encyclopedia of explosives and related items|volume=8|chapter=Napalm|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA057762/page/n186|pages=N2–N3|publisher=Picatinny Arsenal|date=January 1, 1978|lccn=61-61759}}</ref>
Napalm is effective against dug-in enemy personnel. The burning incendiary composition flows into [[Wikipedia:Defensive fighting position|foxholes]], tunnels, and [[Wikipedia:bunker]]s, and drainage and irrigation ditches and other improvised troop shelters. Even people in undamaged shelters can be killed by [[Wikipedia:hyperthermia]], [[Wikipedia:radiant heat]], [[Wikipedia:dehydration]], [[Wikipedia:asphyxia]]tion, smoke exposure, or [[Wikipedia:carbon monoxide poisoning]].<ref name="emed">{{EMedicine|article|833665|Napalm Exposure}}</ref> Crews of [[Wikipedia:armored fighting vehicles]] are also vulnerable, due to the intense heat conducted through the armor. Even in the case of a near miss, the heat can be enough to disable a vehicle.<ref name="PATRv8">{{cite book|author=Seymour M. Kaye|title=Encyclopedia of explosives and related items|volume=8|chapter=Napalm|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA057762/page/n186|pages=N2–N3|publisher=Picatinny Arsenal|date=January 1, 1978|lccn=61-61759}}</ref>


One firebomb released from a low-flying plane can damage an area of {{convert|2500|sqyd|m2|sp=us|order=flip}}.<ref name="emed"/>
One firebomb released from a low-flying plane can damage an area of {{convert|2500|sqyd|m2|sp=us|order=flip}}.<ref name="emed"/>


== International law ==
== International law ==
International law does not specifically prohibit the use of napalm or other incendiaries against military targets,<ref name="UConn">Omara-Otunnu, Elizabeth (8 November 2004). [http://www.advance.uconn.edu/2004/041108/04110803.htm Napalm Survivor Tells of Healing After Vietnam War]. University of Connecticut Advance.</ref> but use against civilian populations was banned by the UN [[Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons]] (CCW) in 1980.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldinbalance.net/intagreements/1980-certainconventionalweapons.php|title=worldinbalance.net|website=www.worldinbalance.net|access-date=6 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004121233/http://www.worldinbalance.net/intagreements/1980-certainconventionalweapons.php|archive-date=4 October 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Protocol on Incendiary Weapons|Protocol III]] of the CCW restricts the use of all [[incendiary weapons]], but a number of countries have not acceded to all of the protocols of the CCW. According to the [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] (SIPRI), countries are considered a party to the convention, which entered into force as international law in December 1983, as long as they ratify at least two of the five protocols. Approximately 25 years after the General Assembly adopted it, it was reported that the US signed it on 21 January 2009, [[Barack Obama]]'s first full day in office as president.<ref name=napalmbiographybook>{{cite book|last=Neer|first=Robert|title=Napalm, An American Biography|year=2013|publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-674-07301-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/napalmamericanbi0000neer/page/224 224]|url=https://archive.org/details/napalmamericanbi0000neer/page/224}}</ref><ref name=napalmbiographyweb>{{cite web|url=http://www.napalmbiography.com|title=Napalm, An American Biography|website=www.napalmbiography.com}}</ref> Its ratification is subject to a reservation that says that the treaty can be ignored if it would save civilian lives.<ref name=napalmbiographyweb/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1995-02-24-1995055173-story.html|title=Military in no hurry to dispose of napalm|author=Los Angeles Times|publisher=Baltimore Sun|date=February 24, 1995|accessdate=April 17, 2021}}</ref> The UN has also acknowledged that the US had ratified the CCW in March 1995, 13 years after the country became a signatory to it.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?chapter=26&clang=_en&mtdsg_no=XXVI-2&src=TREATY |title=UNTC |publisher=Treaties.un.org |date= |accessdate=2022-03-15}}</ref>
International law does not specifically prohibit the use of napalm or other incendiaries against military targets,<ref name="UConn">Omara-Otunnu, Elizabeth (8 November 2004). [http://www.advance.uconn.edu/2004/041108/04110803.htm Napalm Survivor Tells of Healing After Vietnam War]. University of Connecticut Advance.</ref> but use against civilian populations was banned by the UN [[Wikipedia:Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons]] (CCW) in 1980.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldinbalance.net/intagreements/1980-certainconventionalweapons.php|title=worldinbalance.net|website=www.worldinbalance.net|access-date=6 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004121233/http://www.worldinbalance.net/intagreements/1980-certainconventionalweapons.php|archive-date=4 October 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Wikipedia:Protocol on Incendiary Weapons|Protocol III]] of the CCW restricts the use of all [[Wikipedia:incendiary weapons]], but a number of countries have not acceded to all of the protocols of the CCW. According to the [[Wikipedia:Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] (SIPRI), countries are considered a party to the convention, which entered into force as international law in December 1983, as long as they ratify at least two of the five protocols. Approximately 25 years after the General Assembly adopted it, it was reported that the US signed it on 21 January 2009, [[Wikipedia:Barack Obama]]'s first full day in office as president.<ref name=napalmbiographybook>{{cite book|last=Neer|first=Robert|title=Napalm, An American Biography|year=2013|publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-674-07301-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/napalmamericanbi0000neer/page/224 224]|url=https://archive.org/details/napalmamericanbi0000neer/page/224}}</ref><ref name=napalmbiographyweb>{{cite web|url=http://www.napalmbiography.com|title=Napalm, An American Biography|website=www.napalmbiography.com}}</ref> Its ratification is subject to a reservation that says that the treaty can be ignored if it would save civilian lives.<ref name=napalmbiographyweb/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1995-02-24-1995055173-story.html|title=Military in no hurry to dispose of napalm|author=Los Angeles Times|publisher=Baltimore Sun|date=February 24, 1995|accessdate=April 17, 2021}}</ref> The UN has also acknowledged that the US had ratified the CCW in March 1995, 13 years after the country became a signatory to it.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?chapter=26&clang=_en&mtdsg_no=XXVI-2&src=TREATY |title=UNTC |publisher=Treaties.un.org |date= |accessdate=2022-03-15}}</ref>


== See also ==
== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Flame fougasse]]
* [[Wikipedia:Flame fougasse]]
* [[German Village (Dugway proving ground)]]
* [[Wikipedia:German Village (Dugway proving ground)]]
* [[Greek fire]], an ancient flamethrowing weapon that may have resembled napalm
* [[Wikipedia:Greek fire]], an ancient flamethrowing weapon that may have resembled napalm
* [[Japanese Village (Dugway Proving Ground)]]
* [[Wikipedia:Japanese Village (Dugway Proving Ground)]]
* [[M-69 Incendiary cluster bomb]]
* [[Wikipedia:M-69 Incendiary cluster bomb]]
* [[Mark 77 bomb]]
* [[Wikipedia:Mark 77 bomb]]
* [[Molotov cocktail]]
* [[Wikipedia:Molotov cocktail]]
* [[Phan Thi Kim Phuc]], a Vietnamese child injured by a napalm attack
* [[Wikipedia:Phan Thi Kim Phuc]], a Vietnamese child injured by a napalm attack
* [[Triethylaluminium]]
* [[Wikipedia:Triethylaluminium]]
* [[White phosphorus munitions]]{{div col end}}
* [[Wikipedia:White phosphorus munitions]]{{div col end}}


== References ==
== References ==
Line 85: Line 85:


==Further reading==
==Further reading==
* Neer, Robert M. (2013). ''Napalm: An American Biography''. [[Belknap Press]] {{ISBN|978-0-674-07301-2}}
* Neer, Robert M. (2013). ''Napalm: An American Biography''. [[Wikipedia:Belknap Press]] {{ISBN|978-0-674-07301-2}}


== External links ==
== External links ==
Line 94: Line 94:
{{Authority control}}
{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Incendiary weapons]]
[[Wikipedia:Category:Incendiary weapons]]
[[Category:World War II weapons]]
[[Wikipedia:Category:World War II weapons]]
[[Category:American inventions]]
[[Wikipedia:Category:American inventions]]
[[Category:Soaps]]
[[Wikipedia:Category:Soaps]]
[[Category:Thickening agents]]
[[Wikipedia:Category:Thickening agents]]

Revision as of 04:42, 22 September 2024

thumb|upright=1.35|The only time napalm was used in Comofasian history

Napalm is an incendiary mixture of a gelling agent and a volatile petrochemical (usually Wikipedia:petrol or Wikipedia:diesel fuel). The name is a Wikipedia:portmanteau of two of the constituents of the original thickening and gelling agents: Wikipedia:coprecipitated Wikipedia:aluminium salts of naphthenic acid and palmitic acid.[1] A team led by chemist Wikipedia:Louis Fieser originally developed napalm for the Wikipedia:US Chemical Warfare Service in 1942 in a secret laboratory at Wikipedia:Harvard University.[2] Of immediate first interest was its viability as an Wikipedia:incendiary device to be used in Wikipedia:fire bombing campaigns during Wikipedia:World War II; its potential to be coherently projected into a solid stream that would carry for distance (instead of the bloomy fireball of pure Wikipedia:gasoline) resulted in widespread adoption in infantry and tank/boat mounted Wikipedia:flamethrowers as well.

Napalm burns at temperatures[3][4] ranging from 800 to 1200. It burns longer than gasoline, is more easily dispersed, and adheres to its targets. These traits make it both effective and controversial. It has been widely deployed from the air and from the ground, the largest use being via airdropped bombs in Wikipedia:World War II in the incendiary attacks on Japanese cities in 1945. It was used also for Wikipedia:close air support roles in the Wikipedia:First Indochina War, the Wikipedia:Algerian War, the Wikipedia:Korean War, the Wikipedia:Six-Day War, and the Wikipedia:Vietnam War. Napalm has also fueled most of the Wikipedia:flamethrowers (tank-, ship-, and infantry-based) used since World War II, giving them much greater range, and was a common weapon of Wikipedia:urban combat by both the Axis and the Allies in World War II.

Development

Use of fire in warfare has a long history. Wikipedia:Greek fire, which also is described as "sticky fire" (Template:Lang, pýr kolletikón), is believed to have had a petroleum base. The development of napalm was precipitated by the use of jellied gasoline mixtures by the Allied forces during Wikipedia:World War II.[5]Template:Rp The use of aluminium salts of organic acids (Ionov's salt) for the preparation of incendiary viscous mixtures was already done by the Soviets in 1939, with high acceptance by the Wikipedia:Red Army.[6] Wikipedia:Latex, used in these early forms of incendiary devices, became scarce, since Wikipedia:natural rubber was almost impossible to obtain after the Japanese army captured the rubber plantations in Malaya, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Wikipedia:Thailand.

This shortage of natural rubber prompted Wikipedia:chemists at US companies such as Wikipedia:DuPont and Wikipedia:Standard Oil of New Jersey, and researchers at Wikipedia:Harvard University, to develop factory-made alternatives: artificial rubber for all uses, including vehicle tires, tank tracks, gaskets, hoses, medical supplies and rain clothing. A team of chemists led by Wikipedia:Louis Fieser at Harvard University was the first to develop synthetic napalm during 1942.[7] "The production of napalm was first entrusted to Nuodex Products, and by the middle of April 1942 they had developed a brown, dry powder that was not sticky by itself, but when mixed with gasoline turned into an extremely sticky and flammable substance." One of Fieser's colleagues suggested adding Wikipedia:phosphorus to the mix which increased the "ability to penetrate deeply [...] into the musculature, where it would continue to burn day after day."[8]

On 4 July 1942, the first test occurred on the football field near the Wikipedia:Harvard Business School.[8] Tests under operational conditions were carried out at Wikipedia:Jefferson Proving Ground on condemned farm buildings and subsequently at Wikipedia:Dugway Proving Ground on buildings designed and constructed to represent those to be found in German and Japanese towns.[9][10] This new mixture of chemicals was widely used by the United States in the Second World War for Wikipedia:incendiary bombs and in Wikipedia:flamethrowers, after its first deployment in Papua New Guinea on 15 December 1943.[11]

From 1965 to 1969, the Wikipedia:Dow Chemical Company manufactured napalm for the American armed forces.[11] After news reports of napalm deadly and disfiguring effects were published, Dow Chemical experienced Wikipedia:boycotts of its products, and its recruiters for new chemists, chemical engineers, etc., graduating from college were subject to campus boycotts and protests.[12][13] The management of the company decided that its "first obligation was the government".[14] Meanwhile, napalm became a symbol for the Wikipedia:Vietnam War.[15]

Military use

[[Wikipedia:File:French indochina napalm 1953-12 1.png|thumb|Results of a napalm strike by the Wikipedia:Aviation navale on suspected Wikipedia:Viet Minh positions during the Wikipedia:First Indochina War, December 1953]]

Napalm was first employed in incendiary bombs and went on to be used as fuel for flamethrowers.[16]

The first recorded strategic use of napalm incendiary bombs occurred in an attack by the Wikipedia:US Army Air Force (USAAF) on Wikipedia:Berlin on 6 March 1944, using American AN-M76 incendiary bombs with PT-1 (Pyrogel) filler.[17][18] The first known tactical use by the USAAF was by the Wikipedia:368th Fighter Group, Ninth Air Force Northeast of Wikipedia:Compiègne, France 27 May 1944[19] and the British De Havilland Mosquito FB Mk.VIs of No. 140 Wing RAF, Second Tactical Airforce on 14 July 1944, which also employed the AN-M76 incendiary in a reprisal attack on the Wikipedia:17th SS Panzergrenadier Division "Götz von Berlichingen" in Bonneuil-Matours. Soldiers of this Waffen SS unit had captured and then killed a British SAS prisoner-of-war, Lieutenant Tomos Stephens, taking part in Wikipedia:Operation Bulbasket, and seven local French resistance fighters. Although it was not known at the time of the airstrike, 31 other POWs from the same SAS unit, and an American airman who had joined up with the SAS unit, had also been executed.[20]

Further use of napalm by Allied forces occurred in the Pacific theater of operations, where, in 1944 and 1945, napalm was used as a tactical weapon against Japanese bunkers, pillboxes, tunnels, and other fortifications, especially on Wikipedia:Saipan, Wikipedia:Iwo Jima, the Wikipedia:Philippines, and Wikipedia:Okinawa, where deeply dug-in Japanese troops refused to surrender. Napalm bombs were dropped by aviators of the Wikipedia:US Navy, the USAAF, the Wikipedia:US Marine Corps, and the Wikipedia:Royal Air Force[21] in support of ground troops.[citation needed] The Wikipedia:M69 incendiary was specifically designed to destroy Japanese civilian houses. Those bombs were widely used against civilians, including the Wikipedia:Bombing of Tokyo. Over 40,000 tons of AN-M69s were dropped on Japanese cities during the war.[22]

When the USAAFs on the Wikipedia:Marianas Islands ran out of conventional Wikipedia:thermite incendiary bombs for their B-29 Superfortresses to drop on large Japanese cities, its top commanders, such as General Wikipedia:Curtis LeMay, used napalm bombs to continue with fire raids.[23]

In the Wikipedia:European Theater of Operations, napalm was used by American forces[24] in the siege of La Rochelle in April 1945 against German soldiers (and inadvertently French civilians) in Wikipedia:Royan—about two weeks before the end of the war.[25]

In its first known post-WWII use, US-supplied napalm was used in the Wikipedia:Greek Civil War by the Greek National Army as part of operations Koronis and Pyrsos against the Wikipedia:Democratic Army of Greece (DSE)—the military branch of the Wikipedia:Communist Party of Greece (KKE).[26][27]

[[Wikipedia:File:US riverboat using napalm in Vietnam.jpg|thumb|"Zippo" riverboat of the US Wikipedia:Brown-water navy deploying an ignited napalm mixture from a riverboat-mounted Wikipedia:flamethrower in Vietnam]]

Napalm was widely used by the US during the Wikipedia:Korean War.[citation needed] The ground forces in Wikipedia:North Korea holding defensive positions were often outnumbered by Chinese and North Koreans, but US Air Force and Navy aviators had control of the air over nearly all of the Wikipedia:Korean Peninsula. Hence, the American and other UN aviators used napalm for Wikipedia:close air support of the ground troops along the border between North Korea and Wikipedia:South Korea and also for attacks in North Korea. Napalm was used most notably during the battle "Wikipedia:Outpost Harry" in South Korea during the night of 10–11 June 1953.[citation needed] Eighth Army chemical officer Donald Bode reported that on an "average good day" UN pilots used Template:Convert (70,000 US gal; Template:Convert) of napalm, with approximately Template:Convert (60,000 US gal; Template:Convert) of this thrown by US forces.[28] The Wikipedia:New York Herald Tribune hailed "Napalm, the No. 1 Weapon in Korea".[29] British Prime Minister Wikipedia:Winston Churchill privately criticized the use of napalm in Korea, writing that it was "very cruel", as US/UN forces, he wrote, were "splashing it all over the civilian population", "tortur[ing] great masses of people". He conveyed these sentiments to U.S. Wikipedia:Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Wikipedia:Omar Bradley, who "never published the statement". Publicly, Churchill allowed Bradley "to issue a statement that confirmed U.K. support for U.S. napalm attacks".[30]

At the same time, the Wikipedia:French Air Force regularly used napalm for close air support of ground operations in the Wikipedia:First Indochina War (1946–1954). At first, the canisters were simply pushed out the side doors of Ju 52 planes that had been captured in Germany, later mostly B-26 bombers were used.[31]

Napalm became an intrinsic element of US military action during the Vietnam War as forces made increasing use of it for its tactical and psychological effects.[32] Reportedly about Template:Convert (388,000 short tons; Template:Convert) of US napalm bombs were dropped in the region between 1963 and 1973, compared to Template:Convert (32,357 short tons; Template:Convert) used over three years in the Korean War, and Template:Convert (16,500 short tons; Template:Convert) dropped on Japan in 1945.[2] The US Air Force and US Navy used napalm with great effect against all kinds of targets, such as troops, tanks, buildings, jungles, and even Wikipedia:railroad tunnels. The effect was not always purely physical as napalm had psychological effects on the enemy as well.[33]

{{{2}}} A variant of napalm was produced in Wikipedia:Rhodesia for a type of ordnance known as Frantan between 1968 and 1978 and was deployed extensively by the Wikipedia:Rhodesian Air Force during the Bush War.[34] In May 1978, Herbert Ushewokunze, minister of health for the Wikipedia:Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), produced photographic evidence of civilian victims of Rhodesian napalm strikes, which he circulated during a tour of the US.[34] The government of Wikipedia:Mozambique and the Wikipedia:Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) also issued claims at around the same time that napalm strikes against guerrilla targets had become a common feature in Rhodesian military operations both at home and abroad.[34]

The Wikipedia:South African Air Force frequently deployed napalm from Atlas Impala strike aircraft during raids on guerrilla bases in Wikipedia:Angola during the Wikipedia:South African Border War.[35]

Other instances of napalm's use include: France during the Algerian War (1954–1962);[36] the Wikipedia:Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974); Wikipedia:Turkey (1964) dropped napalm bombs in the Wikipedia:Republic of Cyprus; the Wikipedia:Six-Day War by Israel (1967); in Wikipedia:Nigeria (1969); in Wikipedia:India and Wikipedia:Pakistan (1965 and 1971); Wikipedia:Egypt (1973); by Wikipedia:Turkey (1974) the Wikipedia:Turkish Invasion of Cyprus; by Wikipedia:Morocco during the Wikipedia:Western Sahara War (1975–1991); by Wikipedia:Argentina (1982); by Wikipedia:Iran (1980–88); by Wikipedia:Iraq (1980–88, 1991); by Wikipedia:Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) in 1987 against Wikipedia:Tamils (LTTE) in Wikipedia:Sri Lanka; by Wikipedia:Angola during the Wikipedia:Angolan Civil War; and Yugoslavia (1991–1996).[37] In 2018, Turkey was accused of using napalm in its war against Kurdish militias over Afrin.[38]

Antipersonnel effects

[[Wikipedia:File:The Terror of War.jpg|Wikipedia:Phan Thi Kim Phuc, burned with napalm at the age of 9 during the Vietnam War|thumb|right|300px]] When used as a part of an Wikipedia:incendiary weapon, napalm causes severe Wikipedia:burns. During Wikipedia:combustion, napalm deoxygenates the available air and generates Wikipedia:carbon monoxide and Wikipedia:carbon dioxide, so Wikipedia:asphyxiation, unconsciousness, and death are also possible.[39]

Napalm is effective against dug-in enemy personnel. The burning incendiary composition flows into foxholes, tunnels, and Wikipedia:bunkers, and drainage and irrigation ditches and other improvised troop shelters. Even people in undamaged shelters can be killed by Wikipedia:hyperthermia, Wikipedia:radiant heat, Wikipedia:dehydration, Wikipedia:asphyxiation, smoke exposure, or Wikipedia:carbon monoxide poisoning.[39] Crews of Wikipedia:armored fighting vehicles are also vulnerable, due to the intense heat conducted through the armor. Even in the case of a near miss, the heat can be enough to disable a vehicle.[40]

One firebomb released from a low-flying plane can damage an area of Template:Convert.[39]

International law

International law does not specifically prohibit the use of napalm or other incendiaries against military targets,[41] but use against civilian populations was banned by the UN Wikipedia:Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW) in 1980.[42] Protocol III of the CCW restricts the use of all Wikipedia:incendiary weapons, but a number of countries have not acceded to all of the protocols of the CCW. According to the Wikipedia:Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), countries are considered a party to the convention, which entered into force as international law in December 1983, as long as they ratify at least two of the five protocols. Approximately 25 years after the General Assembly adopted it, it was reported that the US signed it on 21 January 2009, Wikipedia:Barack Obama's first full day in office as president.[43][44] Its ratification is subject to a reservation that says that the treaty can be ignored if it would save civilian lives.[44][45] The UN has also acknowledged that the US had ratified the CCW in March 1995, 13 years after the country became a signatory to it.[46]

See also

References

Template:Reflist

Further reading

External links

Template:Wiktionary Template:Commons category

Template:Authority control

Wikipedia:Category:Incendiary weapons Wikipedia:Category:World War II weapons Wikipedia:Category:American inventions Wikipedia:Category:Soaps Wikipedia:Category:Thickening agents

  1. ↑ Template:Cite web
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Template:Cite journal
  3. ↑ Template:Cite web
  4. ↑ Template:Cite book
  5. ↑ Template:Cite book
  6. ↑ V. I. Losev. Gazavaya Promyshlennost, Vol 4, No 12, 1959. pp 17-24.
  7. ↑ Template:Cite web
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Template:Cite book
  9. ↑ Template:Cite book
  10. ↑ Template:Cite web
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Template:Cite web
  12. ↑ Template:Cite web
  13. ↑ Template:Cite magazine
  14. ↑ "Napalm History" Template:Webarchive Virginia Center for Digital History
  15. ↑ Napalm Template:Webarchive. vcdh.virginia.edu. Retrieved on 11 February 2010.
  16. ↑ Template:Cite web
  17. ↑ Kleber, Brooks E. and Birdsell, Dale (1966) The Chemical Warfare Service: Chemicals in Combat. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, p.158.
  18. ↑ An article in The Harvard Crimson dated 12 October 1973 here [1] states that "The U.S. military started using napalm during the middle of 1942".
  19. ↑ Template:Cite web
  20. ↑ McCue, Paul and Baker, Max (2009) SAS Operation Bulbasket: Behind the Lines in Occupied France. Barnsley, S. Yorks: Pen and Sword Books. p. 104. Template:ISBN.
  21. ↑ Template:Cite book
  22. ↑ Template:Cite web
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  25. ↑ Wikipedia:Howard Zinn, You Can't Be Neutral on a Moving Train. 2004 Documentary
  26. ↑ Template:Cite book
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  29. ↑ Template:Cite book
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  32. ↑ Template:Cite web
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  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 Template:Cite book
  35. ↑ Template:Cite book
  36. ↑ Wikipedia:Benjamin Stora, "Avoir 20 ans en Kabylie", in Wikipedia:L'Histoire n°324, October 2007, pp. 28–29 Template:In lang
  37. ↑ Goose Green, 2 Para in Falklands War 1982. Naval-history.net. Retrieved on 11 February 2010.
  38. ↑ Template:Cite web
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 Template:EMedicine
  40. ↑ Template:Cite book
  41. ↑ Omara-Otunnu, Elizabeth (8 November 2004). Napalm Survivor Tells of Healing After Vietnam War. University of Connecticut Advance.
  42. ↑ Template:Cite web
  43. ↑ Template:Cite book
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Template:Cite web
  45. ↑ Template:Cite news
  46. ↑ Template:Cite web
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